Everything below concerns synthetic peptide. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2025-10-30. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Research interest has centred on photoprotection and pigmentation, with a smaller body of work on appetite and sexual function. Published human data remain limited to small, frequently uncontrolled studies, and the compound has never received marketing approval from a national medicines regulator. Most laboratory work treats it as a pharmacological tool for probing melanocortin signalling in cell culture or animal models. Whether pigmentation changes observed in people translate into measurable protection against ultraviolet-induced DNA damage remains an open question.
Melanotan-2 is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide designed as an analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, the naturally occurring peptide involved in pigmentation signalling. Its sequence is conventionally written as Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-NH2, with a lactam bridge joining the aspartate side chain to the lysine side chain. The empirical formula is C50H69N15O9 and the monoisotopic mass lies near 1023.5 daltons. N-terminal acetylation and the D-configured phenylalanine both increase resistance to enzymatic breakdown compared with the parent hormone.
Pharmacologically, melanotan-2 behaves as a non-selective agonist across the melanocortin receptor family. Binding at MC1R on dermal melanocytes promotes eumelanin synthesis, which underlies the tanning response described in early human work. Activity at the centrally expressed MC4R receptor is associated with reported effects on appetite and erectile function. Because the peptide does not discriminate strongly among receptor subtypes, attributing any single observed effect to one receptor pathway is generally not possible without selective antagonists or receptor knockout models.
The compound was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by academic researchers investigating melanocortin signaling and pigmentation. Early work explored whether synthetic analogs could reproduce effects of the natural hormone under controlled conditions. The molecule never advanced through the full regulatory pathway required for approval as a medicine. From the mid-2000s onward it appeared in unregulated consumer markets, often distributed through informal channels. That gap between research origins and commercial availability shapes how the compound is discussed today.
Melanotan-2 is a synthetic peptide designed as an analog of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a signaling molecule produced in the pituitary and skin. Its structure is a linear chain of seven amino acids that folds into a ring through an internal lactam bridge joining two side chains. The compound is sometimes written as MT-II or MEL-2 in informal and commercial contexts. It belongs to the melanocortin peptide family, a group of short signaling molecules that share a conserved core sequence recognized by melanocortin receptors.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | Melanotan II; MT-II; N-acetyl-norleucyl-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys] amide | Naming follows peptide convention; the numeral distinguishes it from melanotan-1 |
| Molecular formula | C50H69N15O9 | Includes the lactam bridge; no counter-ion assumed |
| Monoisotopic mass | 1023.53 Da | Free base; salts and counter-ions shift the observed value |
| Appearance | White to off-white lyophilised powder | Batch-to-batch colour variation is not itself proof of impurity |
| Typical analytical method | RP-HPLC purity determination with ESI-MS identity confirmation | Retention time alone does not establish sequence identity |
The compound was developed in the late 1980s and 1990s by academic researchers investigating photoprotection. The rationale held that stimulating melanin production might reduce ultraviolet damage to skin and lower skin cancer risk. Early work examined receptor binding, pigment response, and short-term tolerability in small studies. That program did not produce an approved drug, and formal development stalled after early-phase trials. Whether induced pigmentation confers meaningful photoprotection remains an open question.
Outside regulated medicine, melanotan II circulates through online vendors as a research chemical, often marketed for tanning. Products sold this way vary widely in purity, concentration, and labeling accuracy, and independent testing has documented discrepancies. Published reports describe both pigment effects and adverse reactions, including nausea, flushing, and darkening of existing moles. Long-term safety data are sparse, and no large controlled trial has established a risk profile. Questions about cumulative effects on melanocytes remain unresolved in the literature.
Melanotan II is a synthetic peptide analog modeled on alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a naturally occurring signaling peptide involved in pigmentation. Its structure is a cyclic heptapeptide containing two non-natural substitutions, norleucine at position four and D-phenylalanine at position seven. These modifications resist enzymatic breakdown and extend the molecule's activity relative to the native hormone. The compound binds melanocortin receptors and is studied mainly as a pharmacological tool rather than a therapeutic product. It has never received approval as a medicine in any major jurisdiction.
Published human data come mostly from small, short studies rather than large controlled trials. Reported outcomes include increased skin pigmentation and, in some reports, effects on appetite and libido, but sample sizes are small and follow-up is limited. Whether long-term use produces durable pigment changes or adverse effects is not established. Because products sold outside pharmacies are not standardized, the actual content of any given vial is often unknown. Independent testing of such material is uncommon.
Melanotan II is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide analog derived from the core sequence of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Researchers at the University of Arizona synthesized it during the 1980s while studying pigmentation and appetite signaling. The compound is not an approved medicine in any major jurisdiction and appears mainly in laboratory and research-chemical settings. Its structure incorporates a lactam bridge between side chains, which constrains the ring and slows enzymatic breakdown relative to the natural hormone.
The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries. The Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine is currently one of the world's largest suppliers of laboratory mice, supplying around 3 million mice a year. The laboratory is also the world's source for more than 8,000 strains of genetically defined mice and is home of the Mouse Genome Informatics database.
=== 2020–present === In May 2020, Schumer alongside her husband Chris Fischer starred in an eight-episode cooking show Amy Schumer Learns to Cook, for Food Network which followed Schumer and Fischer cooking while quarantined during the COVID-19 pandemic. The series was self-shot and also featured Schumer donating to The Coalition of Immokalee Workers Fair Food Program and domestic violence organizations. It premiered on May 11, 2020. She next appeared in a documentary series Expecting Amy, which she also executive produced, following Schumer preparing for a stand-up special while going through a difficult pregnancy for HBO Max, which premiered on July 9, 2020. Schumer appeared in the 2021 film The Humans, based upon the play of the same name directed by Stephen Karam. She wrote, directed, and starred in Life & Beth, a 10-episode comedy series for Hulu which premiered on March 18, 2022. The revival of her sketch series Inside Amy Schumer, which had been on hiatus since 2016, was announced in February 2021, with five additional specials to be released through Paramount+. In January 2022, she was cast as a guest role for season two of Only Murders in the Building. She co-hosted the 94th Academy Awards with Regina Hall and Wanda Sykes on March 27, 2022. In June, she joined the cast of Jerry Seinfeld's Unfrosted. In 2023 her comedy special Emergency Contact, which she also directed, was released. In 2023, Schumer performed at A Very Good+ Night of Comedy at Carnegie Hall, a benefit for Good+Foundation.
Coca tea, also called mate de coca, is a herbal tea (infusion) made using the raw or dried leaves of the cocaine-containing coca plant, which is native to South America. It is made either by submerging the coca leaf or steeping a tea bag in hot water. The tea is most commonly consumed in the Andes mountain range, particularly Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and especially in Peru, where it is consumed all around the country. It is greenish yellow in color and has a mild bitter flavor similar to green tea with a more organic sweetness. There is no evidence that the use of coca tea leads to dependence or addiction, potentially due to the low concentrations of cocaine present. Though also known as mate, mate de coca is made from a different plant than the yerba mate drink in southeastern South America.
Flotufolastat (18F), sold under the brand name Posluma, is a radioactive diagnostic agent for use with positron emission tomography (PET) imaging for prostate cancer. The active ingredient is flotufolastat (18F). Flotufolastat (18F) was approved for medical use in the United States in May 2023.
hemizygous In a diploid organism, having just one allele at a given genetic locus (where there would ordinarily be two). Hemizygosity may be observed when only one copy of a chromosome is present in a normally diploid cell or organism, or when a segment of a chromosome containing one copy of an allele is deleted, or when a gene is located on a sex chromosome in the heterogametic sex (in which the sex chromosomes do not exist in matching pairs); for example, in human males with normal chromosomes, almost all X-linked genes are said to be hemizygous because there is only one X chromosome and few of the same genes exist on the Y chromosome.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
However, Sertürner became addicted to the drug, warning that "I consider it my duty to attract attention to the terrible effects of this new substance I called morphium in order that calamity may be averted." The drug was first marketed to the general public by Sertürner and Company in 1817 as a pain medication, and also as a treatment for opium and alcohol addiction. It was first used as a poison in 1822 when Edme Castaing of France was convicted of murdering a patient. Commercial production began in Darmstadt, Germany, in 1827 by the pharmacy that became the pharmaceutical company Merck, with morphine sales being a large part of their early growth. In the 1850s, Alexander Wood reported that he had injected morphine into his wife Rebecca as an experiment; the myth goes that this killed her because of respiratory depression, but she outlived her husband by ten years. Later it was found that morphine was more addictive than either alcohol or opium, and its extensive use during the American Civil War allegedly resulted in over 400,000 people with the "soldier's disease" of morphine addiction. This idea has been a subject of controversy, as there have been suggestions that such a disease was in fact a fabrication; the first documented use of the phrase "soldier's disease" was in 1915. Diacetylmorphine (better known as heroin) was synthesized from morphine in 1874 and brought to market by Bayer in 1898. Heroin is approximately 1.5 to 2 times more potent than morphine weight for weight.
Postoperative wounds are those wounds acquired during surgical procedures. Postoperative wound healing occurs after surgery and normally follows distinct bodily reactions: the inflammatory response, the proliferation of cells and tissues that initiate healing, and the final remodeling. Postoperative wounds are different from other wounds in that they are anticipated and treatment is usually standardized depending on the type of surgery performed. Since the wounds are 'predicted' actions can be taken beforehand and after surgery that can reduce complications and promote healing.
The more serious resistance in the départements was crushed by declaring a state of siege and by the "mixed commissions". The plebiscite of 20 December ratified by a huge majority the coup d'état in favour of the prince-president, who alone reaped the benefit of the excesses of the Republicans and the reactionary passions of the monarchists.
=== Restrictive plant-based diets === Fruitarianism only permits fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant. Macrobiotic diets mostly consist of whole grains and beans. Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Food must not be heated above 118 °F (48 °C) to be considered "raw". Usually, raw vegan food is only ever "cooked" with a food dehydrator at low temperatures.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Military forces in several countries, including France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, have used modafinil as an alternative to amphetamines for managing fatigue during combat operations and extended missions. The US Air Force approved modafinil for specific missions as a fatigue countermeasure. Modafinil is also available to astronauts aboard the International Space Station for fatigue management.
=== 16 March === Government buildings used by the RSF in Ed Daein and Nyala were destroyed by missiles. The SAF also claimed to have taken control of the Family Club, Khartoum 3, and part of Khartoum 2 and cut off the last RSF supply route to the Presidential Palace. Four people were killed and 30 people were injured including 18 children from RSF shelling in Karari, Omdurman. The SAF said that its Armoured Corps had linked up with SAF forces at the General Command headquarters in Khartoum after clearing the People's Teaching Hospital from the RSF.
== Further reading == Sherman, R. A. (2003). "Maggot Therapy for Treating Diabetic Foot Ulcers Unresponsive to Conventional Therapy". Diabetes Care. 26 (2): 446–51. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.2.446. PMID 12547878. Van Der Plas, M. J. A.; Jukema, G. N.; Wai, S.-W.; Dogterom-Ballering, H. C. M.; Lagendijk, E. L.; Van Gulpen, C.; Van Dissel, J. T.; Bloemberg, G. V.; Nibbering, P. H. (2007). "Maggot excretions/secretions are differentially effective against biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 61 (1): 117–22. doi:10.1093/jac/dkm407. PMID 17965032. Cazander, G.; Van Veen, K.E.B.; Bernards, A.T.; Jukema, G.N. (2009). "Do maggots have an influence on bacterial growth? A study on the susceptibility of strains of six different bacterial species to maggots of Lucilia sericata and their excretions/secretions". Journal of Tissue Viability. 18 (3): 80–7. doi:10.1016/j.jtv.2009.02.005. PMID 19362001. Cazander, Gwendolyn; Schreurs, Marco W. J.; Renwarin, Lennaert; Dorresteijn, Corry; Hamann, Dörte; Jukema, Gerrolt. N. (2012). "Maggot excretions affect the human complement system". Wound Repair and Regeneration. 20 (6): 879–86. doi:10.1111/j.1524-475X.2012.00850.x. PMID 23110586. S2CID 24568980. Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y.; Ingber, Arieh; Gilead, Leon; Stessman, Jochanan; Friedmann, Reuven; Schulman, Haim; Bichucher, Hellen; Ioffe-Uspensky, I; Miller, J; Galun, R; Raz, I (1999). "Maggot therapy for the treatment of intractable wounds". International Journal of Dermatology. 38 (8): 623–7. doi:10.1046/j.1365-4362.1999.00770.x.
== Biomarkers of disease == It is important to acknowledge the biomarkers of third-hand smoke because they theoretically indicate the severity and presence of disease. In a recent study involving mice, THS biomarkers were discovered after four weeks of initial exposure at equivalent levels to those found in the homes of people who smoke. Researchers used a system that mimicked exposure to humans and sought out biomarkers found in serum, liver, and brain tissues in the mice. The mice were then exposed to THS at varying months and as early as one month, they began to show signs of increased circulating inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor, granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor, and an increase in the stress hormone epinephrine. Damage from THS exposure continued after two, four, and six months. Such damages included oxidative stress and molecular damage. In a small controlled study of healthy nonsmoking adults, acute dermal exposure to third-hand smoke increased urinary biomarkers of oxidative damage to DNA, lipids and proteins and altered the plasma proteome in a pattern similar to that observed in cigarette smokers, including activation of pathways associated with inflammatory skin disease. Some of the mice also became hyperglycemic and hyperinsulinimic, which could mean that insulin resistance could be a consequence of long-term exposure. This study implies that increased exposure time to THS can have dramatic effects.
In Japan in 675, the Emperor Tenmu prohibited the killing and the eating of meat during the busy farming period between April and September but excluded the eating of wild birds and wild animals. These bans and several others that followed over the centuries were overturned in the nineteenth century during the Meiji Restoration. In China, during the Song dynasty, Buddhist cuisine became popular enough that vegetarian restaurants appeared where chefs used ingredients such as beans, gluten, root vegetables and mushrooms to create meat analogues including pork, fowl, eggs and crab roe and many meat substitutes used even today such as tofu, seitan and konjac originate in Chinese Buddhist cuisine.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, containing seven amino acids with a lactam ring and a D-configured phenylalanine residue. It is supplied as a lyophilised powder for laboratory research.
The natural hormone is a linear tridecapeptide that is rapidly degraded in circulation. Melanotan-2 is shortened, cyclised, N-terminally acetylated, and carries a D-amino acid substitution, all of which slow enzymatic breakdown.
No national medicines regulator has approved melanotan-2 for therapeutic or cosmetic use. In several jurisdictions it is treated as an unapproved prescription medicine, and its legal classification differs from country to country.
It is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide modeled on alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. It carries two non-natural substitutions and a cyclic bridge that increase its stability relative to the natural hormone. It circulates as a research chemical and is not an approved medicine.